Medieval History of India

Qutbuddin Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE. He was a slave general of Muhammad Ghori and established the Slave Dynasty, which was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Construction began in 1632 and was completed in 1653. It is considered one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture.

Sulh-i-Kul means 'peace with all' and was Akbar's policy of religious tolerance. He believed in treating all religions equally and encouraged dialogue between different faiths.

The Lodi Dynasty was the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate that ruled before the Mughals. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, marking the beginning of Mughal rule.

The Delhi Sultanate had a centralized administrative system: **Central Administration:** - Sultan: Supreme ruler with absolute power - Wazir: Prime minister and chief advisor - Military: Headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik - Revenue: Managed by Diwan-i-Wizarat **Provincial Administration:** - Empire divided into provinces (Iqtas) - Governors appointed by the Sultan - Local administrators maintained law and order **Key Features:** - Islamic law (Sharia) was the basis of governance - Revenue mainly from land taxes - Strong military to maintain control - Persian was the court language

Mughal architecture combined Persian, Islamic, and Indian elements: **Key Features:** - Use of red sandstone and white marble - Pointed arches and bulbous domes - Geometric and floral patterns - Calligraphy and inlay work - Gardens with water channels (charbagh) **Famous Examples:** - Taj Mahal: Perfect symmetry and proportions - Red Fort: Massive walls and beautiful palaces - Fatehpur Sikri: Blend of Hindu and Islamic styles - Humayun's Tomb: First garden tomb in India **Innovation:** - Double dome construction - Use of pietra dura (stone inlay) - Integration with landscape and gardens

The Mansabdari system was Akbar's military and administrative innovation: **Structure:** - Mansabdars were officials holding ranks (mansabs) - Ranks ranged from 10 to 10,000 - Two numbers: Zat (personal rank) and Sawar (cavalry) **Functions:** - Military service and troop maintenance - Revenue collection in assigned areas - Administrative duties in provinces **Benefits:** - Centralized control over military - Prevented hereditary claims - Ensured loyalty to the emperor - Efficient administration **Payment:** - Cash salaries or revenue assignments (jagirs) - Regular transfers to prevent local power bases

Multiple factors led to the decline of the Mughal Empire: **Political Causes:** - Weak successors after Aurangzeb - Wars of succession weakening the empire - Loss of control over provinces **Economic Causes:** - Continuous warfare draining treasury - Decline in trade and commerce - Heavy taxation burdening people **Administrative Causes:** - Corruption among officials - Breakdown of the Mansabdari system - Loss of central authority **External Factors:** - Rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs) - European colonial intervention - Persian and Afghan invasions **Religious Policies:** - Aurangzeb's intolerant policies - Alienation of Hindu subjects - Revolts by various communities

Akbar's policy of religious tolerance was revolutionary for its time and had far-reaching impacts: **Background:** Akbar inherited a diverse empire with Hindu majority and Muslim ruling class. He realized that religious harmony was essential for political stability. **Key Policies:** 1. **Sulh-i-Kul (Peace with All):** - Treated all religions equally - No discrimination based on faith - Promoted interfaith dialogue 2. **Administrative Reforms:** - Appointed Hindus to high positions (Raja Man Singh, Raja Birbal) - Abolished jizya tax on non-Muslims - Allowed freedom of worship 3. **Personal Initiatives:** - Married Rajput princesses for political alliance - Participated in Hindu festivals - Built Ibadat Khana for religious discussions 4. **Din-i-Ilahi:** - Attempted to create a syncretic religion - Combined elements from various faiths - Emphasized moral and ethical values **Positive Impacts:** 1. **Political Stability:** - Reduced rebellions and conflicts - Created loyal administrative class - Strengthened imperial unity 2. **Economic Prosperity:** - Increased trade and commerce - Better revenue collection - Agricultural development 3. **Cultural Synthesis:** - Fusion of Hindu-Muslim art and architecture - Development of composite culture - Literary and artistic achievements 4. **Social Harmony:** - Reduced communal tensions - Promoted mutual understanding - Created plural society **Long-term Consequences:** - Set precedent for future rulers - Influenced Mughal cultural identity - Created foundation for modern secular ideals - However, later abandoned by Aurangzeb, leading to empire's decline Akbar's tolerance policy was thus crucial for Mughal success and remains relevant for modern India's diversity.

**ADMINISTRATION:** **Delhi Sultanate:** - Autocratic rule with Sultan having absolute power - Islamic law (Sharia) strictly followed - Iqta system for revenue collection - Mostly Turkish and Afghan nobles in administration - Limited Hindu participation in government **Mughal Empire:** - Centralized administration with systematic organization - Flexible interpretation of Islamic law - Mansabdari system replacing Iqta system - Inclusion of Hindus in high positions (especially under Akbar) - More sophisticated bureaucratic structure **CULTURE:** **Delhi Sultanate:** - Predominantly Islamic culture - Persian language and literature patronized - Limited cultural synthesis - Religious orthodoxy maintained - Sufism played important role **Mughal Empire:** - Synthesis of Persian, Islamic, and Indian cultures - Multilingual court (Persian, Hindi, regional languages) - Akbar's policy of Sulh-i-Kul promoted tolerance - Development of composite culture - Patronage of arts, literature, and music **ARCHITECTURE:** **Delhi Sultanate:** - Pure Islamic architectural style - Use of pointed arches, geometric patterns - Examples: Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza - Limited use of local materials and techniques - Fortress-like structures emphasizing power **Mughal Empire:** - Fusion of Persian, Islamic, and Indian styles - Use of red sandstone and white marble - Integration of gardens and water features - Examples: Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri - Emphasis on beauty, symmetry, and proportion **SIMILARITIES:** - Both were Islamic dynasties - Persian was the court language - Revenue mainly from agriculture - Strong military organization - Patronage of learning and arts **KEY DIFFERENCES:** - Mughals were more tolerant and inclusive - Mughal administration was more systematic - Mughal culture was more syncretic - Mughal architecture showed greater Indian influence - Mughals achieved greater political stability **CONCLUSION:** While both established Islamic rule in India, the Mughals were more successful in creating a lasting empire due to their administrative efficiency, cultural flexibility, and architectural innovation. The Mughal synthesis of cultures created a unique Indo-Islamic civilization that continues to influence Indian culture today.